The Rise and Fall of the Assassins

When one thinks of the word assassin, the image that comes to mind is a man hidden from view, lying in wait with his sniper rifle ready to kill a renowned personality in return for a briefcase full of dollars. Assassinations have been used to further various political and personal agendas throughout history. Some have caused wars while others may have led to peace.

The first of the assassins were ruthless killers who would kill high profile people in the middle ages as acts of revenge. However they were different from their modern day counterparts in that their motivation was not monetary gain and more importantly they did not hide when striking a target. Their main aim was to strike fear and terror into the hearts of their opponents. The assassins were part of a secretive sect which based itself in mountain fortresses in the Middle East. The fortresses were small but the community was very united who trusted their martial reputation to survive in hostile territories.

In the beginning…

An element of mystery shrouds the cult of Assassins much on the lines of Christian orders of Knights Templar or the Hospitallers. The story of the assassins start from a man called Hasan Ibn Sabah. Hasan Ibn Sabah was born in Qom in modern day Iran into a Shiite Muslim family. His family traced its ancestry to a Yemeni Arab tribe who had settled in Qom which is a seat of learning for Shiite Muslims with its numerous seminaries and educational institutions. Hasan Ibn Sabah was educated in accordance with the prevailing tradition of the day which included theology, mathematics, philosophy and astronomy among others. As he grew older he came in frequent contact with Ismaili missionaries who were very active in Persia at the time. The Ismaili missionaries were different from the twelver Shiites in that they had accepted the hereditary Fatimid ruler of Cairo as their Imam and ruler. The Fatimid ruler traced his lineage to the Islamic Prophet Mohammad and according to Shiite beliefs were the rightful ruler of all Muslims.  Hasan impressed with their teachings converted to Ismaili Islam and left for Cairo to train as a full time missionary. During this time he became close to the caliph however earned his ire when he expressed support for the Caliph’s elder son Nizar to be the successor. The caliph himself wanted his younger son Mustaali to be the next caliph which was a break with established norms and tradition where the eldest son was the heir of the imamate. Hasan was deported on the caliph’s orders and arrived back in Persia and resumed his missionary activities in the earnest. Persia at the time was part of the great Seljuk Empire which was a Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkish origins. The empire at the time was at its zenith and was ruled by Malik Shah whose empire bordered China in the east to Europe in the west.

Malik Shah’s grand vizier was a man named Nizam ul Mulk, a very capable administrator who had a major role in managing the affairs of the great empire. Nizam ul Mulk was informed of Hasan’s missionary activities and ordered his arrest fearing political consequences of his preaching. Hasan however managed to escape into the Alborz Mountains which was inhabited by people who in addition to having sympathy for the Shiite branch of Islam were also fiercely independent in nature and difficult to rule. Having avoided capture Hasan moved further into a mountain valley where he was ultimately able to base himself in an impregnable fortress. This fortress was called Alamut. Hasan never left the fortress again in his lifetime and led a life of solitude and missionary activities. After the death of Fatimid caliph Nizar the elder son was put imprisoned and Mustaali assumed the caliphate. Hasan was of the view that Nizar being the rightful heir should be the new caliph. Nizar later died in prison and Ismaili community split into two factions. Hasan became the leader of Nizari Ismaili community. His aim was clear and that was to unite all Islamic lands under the rightful heirs of the Prophet of Islam. His stance was radical even for the twelver Shiite community and it was only a matter of time before the other Islamic empires surrounding his enclave became sworn enemies of Hasan and his band of “heretics”.

Hasan understood that if his community was to survive he had to make his fortress impregnable and train his people in defending their enclave with a fervent devotion. The Alamaut valley with its deep gorges and inaccessibility provided just the right geographical leverage to achieve that. Hasan also trained an elite group of fighters to carry out political assassinations that would benefit his community and protect them from persecution. These fighters ultimately came to be known as assassins. From their mountain top bastion, Alamaut, the assassins held out against all invaders from 1092 to 1257.

The first strike and the modus operandi of the assassins

In 1092 the assassins made their first kill. Nizam ul Mulk, the powerful vizier of Malik Shah, was stabbed to death by an assassin disguised as a dervish, while being carried in a litter in Baghdad. The surprising aspect of the attack was that the assassin carried out the deed in public and did not try to escape after the murder. He was quickly cut down by the guards of Nizam ul Mulk who faced no resistance from the attacker. Some have argued that this may have been the first instance of a suicide attack with the aim of striking terror into the hearts of the opponents. Thereafter this became the selected method of all assassin attacks. The assassin would attack his target in a public place while taking utmost care to kill no civilians. After the deed he would surrender himself to the striking swords and lances that would quickly bring about his end. This was such an odd practice for mainstream Muslims that they believed that it was not possible for somebody mounting a suicide attack to be of a sane disposition. Therefore they called these audacious killers Hashasheen…or those intoxicated by hashish. The word Hashasheen became anglicized to the word Assassin.

Another legend about how the assassins got their names is that Hasan Ibn Sabah would intoxicate the trained assassins and then take him to a garden where he was offered food, wine and female company as a taste of the paradise that awaited him after death should he go through with the assassination.

The strategy of the assassins was to kill important people who had wronged them or had attempted to massacre their tiny community. They did not have numbers to wage long wars with hostile powers so they had to terrorize their opponents with threat of violent deaths. They cultivated this image meticulously and the secretive nature of their communities naturally added to the mystique. It appears that many of the killings associated to the assassins in the Seljuk Empire may have actually had different perpetrators who conveniently associated their own politically motivated killings to the assassins.

Other Assassin Strongholds

In addition to having a stronghold in Alborz Mountains, the assassins also had a presence in Syria where they had managed to capture a few castles in Nussayriya Mountains in the 12^th century. Here they were also successful in securing themselves from hostile forces surrounding them. Their reputation as ruthless killers meant that they were hired by crusaders as well as Islamic armies as mercenaries to augment their armies as needed. This group of assassins was ruled by Rashiduddin Sinan more commonly known as Sheikh al Jabal or the old man of the mountains. He was able to rule largely autonomously from the Alamaut stronghold due to geographic distance between the two fortresses. This group of assassins made two attempts on the life of Saladin the king of Egypt and Syria who was at war with Kingdom of Jerusalem during the crusades. The second attempt was of such daring that the assassin was able to penetrate the dagger past Saladin’s battle helmet injuring him slightly before the Sultan was able to subdue and kill the attacker. This led to Saladin mounting a campaign against the assassin strongholds but was unable to capture any of the castles. Ultimately he made piece with Sinan who thereafter supported Saladin in some of his military campaigns.

The end of the assassin power

The assassins used their survival instincts and reputation of seeking terrible revenge survived for over 170 years in their mountain fortresses. Their enclaves seemed insulated against the events that surrounded them. The dissolution of Seljuk and Fatimid Empire and the first and the second crusade did not seem to affect their insulated world. They were skillful in allying themselves with powerful kingdoms surrounding them. However another threat from the east broke their back. The Mongol armies attacked a number of assassin stronghold following which assassins were dispatched to kill Mongke Khan. The attack failed and increased the hostility between the two parties. The last Imam ruling Alamaut joined hand with the Abbasid caliph in seeking European help to resist the bloodthirsty Mongols who were routing all kingdoms in their way as they expanded westwards. The help never came and the Imam of assassins decided to submit to the great Khan of the Mongols in return for peace for his community.

The Mongols after capturing and dismantling Alamaut and its surrounding fortresses broke their promise and massacred the small community by the thousands including their Imam who was killed returning from a journey to pay homage to the great Khan in Mongolia. The assassins lost their main bastion Alamaut in 1256 at the hands of Helagu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan.

The community in Syria survived a few more years until Baibars I, the legendary Mamluk king who is well known for handing crushing defeats to the armies of the seventh crusade and to the Mongols, finally routed the assassin fortresses in Syria. This defeat in 1273 effectively decimated any residual political power that the assassins wielded and spelled the end of the cult of assassins.

Aftermath:

The assassins and the Nizari Ismaili community was routed from their seats of power and dispersed over a large area in the Middle East. For many years they practiced Taqqiya or hiding their faith and practices from the mainstream Muslims to avoid persecution while waiting for their imams to rouse them and to form a righteous caliphate in the Islamic lands. The history of assassins is poorly documented as Helagu Khan ordered the library in Alamaut to be burned to the ground destroying much of the documentary evidence of the order.

The Nizari Ismaili Shiite community today is led by Prince Karim Aga Khan IV who resides primarily in Switzerland in a chateau named Aiglemont in reference to the time his ancestors spent in Alamaut. His grandfather Sir Sultan Mohammad Shah Aga Khan III was one of the founding fathers of Pakistan and the president of league of nation from 1937-1938.

The Ismaili Diaspora today exists in many countries but is more concentrated in Pakistan, India, Kenya, Tanzania and the United Kingdom. The violence associated with the assassins is now a thing of the past as the community today is peace- loving and progressive. The castle of Alamaut which the Mongols destroyed today lies in ruins however remains a UNESCO world heritage site.

Further Reading:

The Assassins: A Radical Sect of Islam by Bernad Lewis

World enough and time: Memoirs of Sultan Mohammad Shah Aga Khan III by Aga Khan III

The Assassin Legends: The myths of the Ismailis by Farhad Daftary

Masyaf Fortress...assassin stronghold in Syria

Guard tower of Alamaut castle

Alamaut castle today

Aga Khan IV and his family

Noor Inayat Khan - The Spy Princess

On 4th May 1799 the armies of British East India company, the Nizam of Hyderabad and marhatta soldiers defeated Sultan Tipu in the 4th battle of Mysore. The Sultan Tipu keeping true to his words, that he would prefer to live one day as a lion rather than a 100 as a hyena, died defending his capital Serengapattam. An illustrious Indian was no more and the floodgates of british colonization were opened in India. The Sultan's family was divested of its kingdom and its territory was in part divided among the Nizam and the British. The remaining territory was converted into a princely state with the British exacting tribute and assuming control over the foreign policy. A more pliant ruler and the former prime minister of the Sultan, who had betrayed him during the battle were retained. With the passage of time Sultan Tipu's family was forgotten.

On new year's eve in Moscow in the year 1914 a girl was born to Sufi Inayat Khan founder of Sufi order International which preached sufi practices of spirituality, love and universal brotherhood in the western world. The family moved to live in England shortly prior to the outbreak of the first world war. Young Noor got her early education in England and in 1920 the family relocated to France and settling near Paris. She studied child psychology at Sorbonne and also became a gifted musician like her father. After her father's death in 1927 Noor continued to live in France with her family and wrote children's stories and poetry which were regularly published in magazines.

Memorial in Dachau Concentration Camp

In the summer of 1940 the family arrived in England again after Nazi Germany had invaded and occupied France early into the 2nd world war. Both Noor and her brother decided to contribute to the war effort. In the winter of 1940 Noor joined the women's auxillary airforce and received training as a wireless operator. In 1943 Noor was recruited into the special operations executive informally known as the baker street irregulars which was formed as a clandestine establishment with the purpose of operating behind enemy lines and engage in espionage, sabotage and other acts of warfare excluding direct engagement.

Here Noor, due to her fluency in the french language, was chosen to be sent to Nazi occupied France as an undercover radio operation despite having incomplete training for such missions.
On the night of 16 June 1943 Noor slipped into France and was received by another agent of the SOE. They travelled to Paris together and joined the 'physicians' resistance network led by Major Francis Suttill. She would never leave France again.

Noor Inayat Khan in Uniform

It was a highly dangerous business being a radio operator in occupied France as Gestapo and SD were always on the lookout for subversive elements in occupied territory. Often they were successful in sniffing out radio operators. Within space of a few days all the agents who had entered France with her were arrested by the SD. Despite a clear danger due to the arrest of her comrades Noor continued to move from place to place all the while maintaining radio contact with her headquarters in Britain. Finally her luck ran out and on 13-October -1943 Noor was arrested by the SD after being betrayed by an associate's sister. She put up fierce resistance at being arrested and was taken away for interrogation designated as an extremely dangerous prisoner. Noor was uncooperative as a prisoner and attempted to escape from her confinement atleast two times. After the 2nd attempt she was kept shackled to deter her from escaping again. For 10 months Noor endured solitary confinement in prison when orders were issued in September 1944 for her to be moved to the Dachau concentration camp. On 11th of September 1944 Noor and three other female SOE operative were executed by firing squad and their bodies burnt. Noor Inayat Khan was dead at the age of 30. Her last words are reported to be: "Liberte"

Her courage however did not go unnoticed as she received a posthumous Mention in Despatches, a French Croix de Guerre and the George Cross from the british. Much like her ancestor Tipu Sultan - the lion of Mysore, Noor Inayat Khan too chose to die fighting for freedom over a life of imprisonment and humiliation.

The first intruders in Hunza and Nagar

From the year 1813 to 1917 two very large empires waged a strategic struggle to ensure their dominance over Central Asia. The strategic struggle consisted of numerous battles, political arm twisting of smaller nations and daring spy missions from both sides. By the time the struggle concluded vast regions previously blank spots in world maps had been explored and charted for the first time by foreigners. It also provided the western world with a rare glimpse into eastern cultures and way of life which were recorded and published, often with a sensationalist tone, into numerous books by these spymasters cum explorers. It is known as  "The Great Game" during which Russia and the United Kingdom confronted each others for years in hostile and mostly inhospitable terrain trying to gain political and economic leverage in Central Asia. The Russian empire had in the 19th century reached new heights of power with 1/6th of all landmass under its sovereignty. Its only rival for global dominance was the British Empire. The British had a great interest in keeping the rapidly expanding Russians as far as possible from their Indian possessions which from their perspective was the "jewel in the crown".

There were many interesting events that shaped the great game (a name thought of by a British spy Arthur Conolly and popularized by Rudyard Kipling's book Kim) in the nearly 100 years that Russia and Britain locked horns over central Asia. Some events of course are stuff that folklores are made of; such as Alexander Burnes spying mission into the Khanate of Bukhara, Francis Younghusband's attack on Tibet, George Hayward's murder in Chitral and the lone British survivor who made it out of Afghanistan in January 1842 following the Afghan revolt. Some significant events however have been relegated to the attic of even the most diligent historian. One such event is the Hunza Nagar campaign of 1891.

Hunza and Nagar were two mountainous kingdoms nestled in the high Karakoram Mountains. These states were largely insulated from the influence of the outside world due to the treacherous terrain. Their limited means of livelihood was taxing the trade caravans as these two kingdoms straddled the ancient silk route. The harsh mountainous terrain did not allow for much farming. The closest town was Gilgit...a far-off outpost of the state of Jammu & Kashmir. The states of Hunza and Nagar consisted of a population which was fiercely independent and had more in common with people of Chinese Turkestan (modern day Xinkiang) rather than North Indian region of Punjab and North West Frontier due to ancient trade relationships established as town on the silk route. The access to the Indian plains was difficult as the lower mountain valleys were populated by kohistani Muslims who being Sunni Muslims shared bitter animosity with the Ismaili and Shiite Muslims of these two mountainous states. Therefore it was logical for the people of Hunza and Nagar to trade with the Uyghur’s who were richer and more moderate than the fierce kohistani tribesmen who inhabited ridges and valleys around Nanga Parbat Mountain. Both the kingdoms were nominal vassal states of China and had tense relationship with Kashmir to whom they sent a yearly tribute to. The state of Jammu and Kashmir the regional powerhorse was an independent state however was politically aligned with the British...the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent.

In 1889 the rulers of Hunza and Nagar had entered into a treaty with Colonel Algernon Durand, the resident British agent in Gilgit. The treaty called for a halt to raids into Gilgit and surrounding areas in return for yearly allowances for the rulers of Hunza and Nagar. By 1891 the general rebellious tendencies of Hunza and Nagar states, their continued raids against Gilgit (territory of Kashmir state) and intelligence reports of Russian agents being present in Hunza and Nagar with the purpose of provisioning arms to these states fueled British fears of a possible Russian ingress into India. The Indian government therefore decided to undertake a punitive expedition into Hunza and Nagar.

The people of Hunza and Nagar were confident of a victory as their valley was guarded by some of the highest mountains in the world and the trails that lead to heart of the their country was less than 2 feet wide at some points thereby securing it from large scale infantry movement. Also the Kanjutis as the people of Hunza and Nagar were known back then were ruthless fighters and had defeated numerous armies sent to tame them by the Kashmir state. This included major skirmishes in 1848 and 1866 when Dogra (Kashmiri) invasions were repelled successfully and with huge losses to the invader.

On 1st December 1891 the Hunza Nagar field force consisting of about a 1000 fighting men crossed the frontier into Nagar. The field force consisted of men from the famous Gurkha regiment, Punjab Infantry, Hazara mountain battery, Kashmir rifles, Bengal miners and sapper and was accompanies by 16 British officers.

The first battle was fought for the small fortress of Nilt on 2nd December which the British forces were able to comfortably capture. After subsequent skirmishes and battles by 22nd December 1891 the states of Hunza and Nagar were in control of British expeditionary force following capitulation of Altit fort. While the ruler of Nagar had surrendered to the British...the ruler of Hunza had escaped into China with his household and possessions. Safdar Ali Khan of Hunza and Uzr Khan of Nagar, the chief proponents of defiance to the British, had taken with them a convoy of 400 people on their escape to the Chinese Turkistan city of Taskurghan. An expedition was sent to pursue them by the British however returned unsuccessful.


In early January 1892 the British disarmed the valleys of Hunza and Nagar by collecting arms through village headmen. A British officer was installed as the military governor as the bulk of the invading force retreated back to its base in Gilgit. By September 1892, the British had installed Nazim Ali Khan the brother of Safdar Ali Khan to the throne of Hunza and Zafar Ali Khan to the throne of Nagar. His son Uzr Khan was later arrested by Chinese authorities and returned to Gilgit to be imprisoned.


Political Aftermath:


The two states accepted British suzerainty while remaining largely autonomous in their day to day affairs. Their raids into Kashmiri territory and pillaging of caravans reduced in the following years. The Russian influence in the petty states north of Kashmir was quashed and in a few years the great game ended reducing the significance of these petty states. As a result of this expedition Hunza became one of the most loyal tributary states in the Indian subcontinent.  So much so that after the departure of British and creation of Pakistan in August 1947, the brother of the ruler of Hunza at that time - an honorary captain in the british army only took down the Union Jack at his remote outpost in Upper Hunza after a few months when Gilgit scouts assumed control of the outpost.


Today Hunza and Nagar are part of Gilgit-Baltistan province of Pakistan as both Nagar and Hunza states were abolished in 1974 and subsequently merged into Northern Areas. It produces Pakistan's most formidable mountain climbers and is a must visit place for mountain climbing and trekking enthusiasts.

Mir Safdar Ali Khan - Defeated and Deposed

Uzr Ali Khan of Nagar - In exile and captivity in Kashir

Sir Francis Younghusband - Explorer of the Karakorams and the first "hippe"

Mir Nazim Ali Khan at Delhi Durbar 1911 - Installed by the British in 1892

Altit Fort after its fall - 1891

Hunza and Nagar terrain

Colonel Algernon Durand

The commander of the Hunza Nagar campaign -
younger sibling of Henry Mortimer Durand of Durand line fame

Further reading:

When men and mountains meet: Explorers of the western Himalayas by John Keay
Where three empires meet by E.F. Knight
The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia by Peter Hopkirk
The making of a frontier by A. Durand

Tearing down the wall...

For my first post i will focus on an event which signalled the end of the bipolar world. It was a symbol of defeat for communism and a victory for capitalism.
The Berlin wall is no more however throughout the cold war it was a testament to the acrimony and mistrust shared by the capitalistic west and the communist eastern Europe. Associated with it are tales of political intrigue, spy games, espionage, propaganda and defections. For the west Germans it was a barrier aimed at separating the German people while for the eastern German government it kept the fascist elements out.
By the end of the second world war Berlin was a city in ruins and divided into four occupation zones by the allied powers in line with the Potsdam conference which decided the fortunes of the defeated Nazi Germany. It was decided that the country would be divided into four occupation zones between the US, UK, France and USSR. Berlin the capital was to be divided among the victors according to the same formula although it was situated deep within the soviet held territory. By 1948 tensions between USSR and US were reaching new heights leading to blockage of all supplies to the West Berlin. In response the US and west European countries resupplied west Berlin through a massive airlift operation the situation was resolved a few months later. As the crisis ended Germany was divided into two states modeled on the political systems of their occupying forces. West Germany was a free market democracy while east Germany was a communist state. Fueled by massive amount of aid for rebuilding the 'bombed to stoneage' country  through the Marshall plan, west Germany reached a high standard of living compared to the East which was run frugally much like other command economies. This led to people from East Germany move to the West to benefit from the more economic opportunities it presented. Also those who wished to escape the perceived sovietization of East Germany continued to defect to the West through Berlin which was at this point allowed freedom of movement. It become the choice spot for people of the eastern bloc to escape to the west.
By 1961 however the East German government had had enough. It was losing its most intelligent people to the west and such a situation could not be allowed to continue. On 13 August 1961 East Germany stopped all movement between the divided city and started erecting barriers , fences and barbed wire to stop the emigration of people to the west. The complete wall was built in phases beginning in 1961 with a fence, followed by an improved fence and finally the concrete wall which began in 1965. The final version of the wall was the most sophisticated one with the top of the wall lined with a smooth pipe to make it difficult to scale the wall. The wall itself was reinforced by mesh fencing, signal fencing, anti-vehicle trenches, razor wire, beds of nails under balconies hanging over the death strip. Additionally it had over 116 watch towers and 20 bunkers.
Throughout its history there were several high profile defection attempts from the east to the west. Some defection attempts failed with not so pleasant consequences for the defector. East German border guards were allowed to shoot defectors and they often used that right to deter possible defections. There were many ingenious ways thought up by people who wanted to defect. Driving through barriers, using sewers which  predated the wall, flying an ultralight into west Berlin, jumping for apartment windows overhanging on west Berlin streets and countless others.
If however a defector was shot in the process of defecting then there was no way for the west German border guards to help that person no matter how close to the western side he was. The infamous case of 18 year old Peter Fecter who was shot by east German guards and bled to death in full view of the media.
By 1989 there was winds of change blowing in the eastern bloc and the once mighty Soviet Union was breathing its last. Many eastern bloc nations began their move towards democracy with Germans on both sides of the wall demanding an end to the wall. Waves and waves of east Germans defected to Austria through Hungary and Czechoslovakia while the rest demanded change. On  9th November 1989 the east German authorities opened its borders to the west for the first time in decades yielding to the intense pressure by million of east German protesters. Jubilant crowds of east Germans poured into west Berlin freely meeting their friends and families for the first time in years. In the following days people with sledgehammers came to the wall to demolish parts of it with the border guards on both sides looking on.
In the coming months East Germany first opened additional crossings between the east and the west and later abolished all restriction on travel for German citizens. Sections of the wall stood until most sections were removed by the military after the German unification in 1991.

Today only a few memorial pieces of the wall exist as a reminder of the days gone by when Berlin was a divided city. Approximately 200 people lost their lives on this frontier of the cold war. The fall of the Berlin wall was the first blow to the iron curtain and within a few years communism as a political force was as dead as a door nail.

A section of the wall comes down 11-Nov-1989

The Reichstag today and yesterday



The death strip



First sections of the wall are built -1961



Construction in earnest



Conrad Schumman - Defecting to the west



A helpdess Peter Fechter bleeds to death